Matthew

a 5:1 — He went up on the mountain; and after He sat down (ἀνέβη εἰς τὸ ὄρος … καθίσαντος αὐτοῦ / anebē eis to oros … kathisantos autou) ↩ back to text

Tier 1 — Lexical Anchor: “Went up on the mountain” (ἀνέβη εἰς τὸ ὄρος anebē eis to oros) uses the article, “the mountain,” without naming it; in the Septuagint the same wording describes Moses going up Sinai (Exodus 19:3; 24:12–13). Sitting (καθίζω kathizō) was the posture of a teacher in the synagogue (compare Luke 4:20; Matthew 23:2). “Opening His mouth” is a solemn idiom for the start of weighty speech (Job 3:1; Psalm 78:2). Matthew 5–7 is addressed to the disciples, with the crowds listening (Matthew 7:28–29).

Tier 2 — Canonical Mesh: Moses received the Law on the mountain and brought it down to Israel; God had promised a prophet like Moses (Deuteronomy 18:15). Isaiah foresaw the nations streaming to the mountain of the Lord, “for out of Zion shall go forth the law” (Isaiah 2:2–3). Matthew’s Gospel is marked by mountains: the temptation (Matthew 4:8), this teaching, the transfiguration (17:1), and the final commission (28:16–20).

Tier 3 — Historical / Cosmological Horizon: In the ancient Near East mountains were places where heaven and earth met and where gods held council. Scripture uses the same imagery: Eden is “the holy mountain of God” (Ezekiel 28:13–14), God meets Israel at Sinai, and Zion becomes His dwelling (Psalm 48:1–2). Within the Divine Council worldview, Jesus teaching from a mountain presents Him in the place of divine revelation, speaking with an authority that the crowds recognize as unlike their scribes’ (Matthew 7:29). The site is not identified; see the map tray.

b 5:3 — Blessed (μακάριοι / makarioi) ↩ back to text

Tier 1 — Lexical Anchor: μακάριος makarios means “blessed, fortunate, to be congratulated.” It translates Hebrew אַשְׁרֵי ʾašrê, the exclamation that opens the Psalter: “Blessed is the man who does not walk in the counsel of the wicked” (Psalm 1:1). It differs from εὐλογητός eulogētos, “blessed” in the sense of praised or spoken well of, used of God. A beatitude declares a present state that rests on a future promise: each line gives the reason (“for”), and the first and last promise the same thing, the kingdom of the heavens (Matthew 5:3, 10), framing the whole series.

Tier 2 — Canonical Mesh: Beatitudes run through the Psalms (Psalm 1:1; 32:1–2; 119:1) and Proverbs. Luke records a shorter set of four with four matching woes (Luke 6:20–26). Revelation contains seven beatitudes, from “Blessed is the one who reads” (Revelation 1:3) to “Blessed are those who wash their robes” (Revelation 22:14).

Tier 3 — Historical / Cosmological Horizon: Beatitudes were a familiar Jewish wisdom form. A Dead Sea Scroll (4Q525) contains a series of beatitudes ending with one who has obtained wisdom and walks in the law of the Most High. Jesus’ beatitudes differ in one striking way: they declare blessed the poor, the mourning, and the persecuted, those whom the world counts unfortunate, because God’s kingdom is coming to them.

c 5:3 — the poor in spirit (οἱ πτωχοὶ τῷ πνεύματι / hoi ptōchoi tō pneumati) ↩ back to text

Tier 1 — Lexical Anchor: πτωχός ptōchos means “poor,” literally one who crouches, a beggar, wholly dependent on others; it is stronger than πένης penēs, a laborer with little. “In spirit” (τῷ πνεύματι tō pneumati) is a dative of respect: poor with regard to the spirit, those who know their own spiritual destitution and depend on God. Luke has simply “you who are poor” (Luke 6:20). The two forms are complementary rather than opposed, since in the Psalms and Prophets the materially poor are often also the humble who wait on God.

Tier 2 — Canonical Mesh: The beatitudes echo Isaiah 61:1–3: the anointed one brings good news to the poor, comforts all who mourn, and gives them “the mantle of praise instead of a faint spirit.” God looks to “the one who is humble and contrite in spirit” (Isaiah 66:2) and is near “the crushed in spirit” (Psalm 34:18). Jesus points to the poor hearing the good news as a sign of His ministry (Matthew 11:5); James says God chose the poor of the world to be rich in faith and heirs of the kingdom (James 2:5).

Tier 3 — Historical / Cosmological Horizon: Hebrew עֲנָוִים ʿănāwîm, “the poor, the humble,” became a name for the faithful remnant who trusted God under oppression. The Dead Sea Scrolls use almost the same phrase as Matthew: the War Scroll speaks of “the poor in spirit” (עַנְוֵי רוּחַ ʿanwê rûaḥ; 1QM 14:7) among those God raises up. A first-century Jewish audience would hear Jesus addressing the humble remnant waiting for God’s reign.

d 5:4 — they shall be comforted (αὐτοὶ παρακληθήσονται / autoi paraklēthēsontai) ↩ back to text

Tier 1 — Lexical Anchor: παρακαλέω parakaleō means “to call alongside,” and so to encourage, exhort, or comfort. The future passive (“shall be comforted”) is a divine passive: God is the one who comforts, though He is not named, a common Jewish way of speaking reverently about God. Many of the beatitudes’ promises use this form (Matthew 5:4, 6, 7, 9). πενθέω pentheō, “to mourn,” is grief expressed openly, as for the dead.

Tier 2 — Canonical Mesh: Isaiah’s anointed one comes “to comfort all who mourn” in Zion (Isaiah 61:2–3), and the second half of Isaiah opens, “Comfort, comfort My people, says your God” (Isaiah 40:1). Simeon was waiting for “the consolation of Israel” (Luke 2:25, the same root). The promise reaches its fulfillment when God wipes away every tear (Revelation 21:4). Paul calls God “the God of all comfort” (2 Corinthians 1:3–4).

Tier 3 — Historical / Cosmological Horizon: “Those who mourn” in the setting of Isaiah 61 are those grieving over Zion’s ruin and Israel’s exile, and so over sin and the brokenness of God’s people, not only private sorrow. In first-century Judea, under Roman rule and Herodian kings, many longed for the “consolation of Israel.” Jesus announces that God’s promised comfort is arriving. A few manuscripts reverse the order of verses 4 and 5; TWB follows NA28.

e 5:5 — the meek … shall inherit the earth (οἱ πραεῖς … κληρονομήσουσιν τὴν γῆν / hoi praeis … klēronomēsousin tēn gēn) ↩ back to text

Tier 1 — Lexical Anchor: πραΰς praus means “gentle, humble, not given to self-assertion.” It is not weakness: it describes strength under God’s control. The line repeats Psalm 37:11 almost word for word (Psalm 36:11 in the Septuagint’s numbering): “the meek shall inherit the land.” Jesus weaves the psalm into His own words without an introductory formula, so TWB treats it as an echo rather than a formal citation and does not set it in capitals. γῆ gē can mean “land” or “earth”; the psalm meant the land of Israel, and Jesus’ saying widens the horizon to the whole earth.

Tier 2 — Canonical Mesh: Moses was “very meek, more than all people on the face of the earth” (Numbers 12:3). Jesus calls Himself “gentle and lowly in heart” (Matthew 11:29) and enters Jerusalem “gentle, and mounted on a donkey” (Matthew 21:5, quoting Zechariah 9:9). Paul says Abraham was promised that he would be “heir of the world” (Romans 4:13), and the story ends in a new heaven and a new earth (Revelation 21:1).

Tier 3 — Historical / Cosmological Horizon: Psalm 37 contrasts the wicked, who seize land by force, with the humble, who wait for the Lord and will possess the land. In Roman Palestine land was steadily passing into the hands of large estates, and some Jewish groups sought to take it back by force. Jesus promises the earth to those who do not grasp for it. The Dead Sea Scrolls commentary on Psalm 37 (4Q171) applied the psalm to their own community as the poor who would inherit the land.

f 5:6 — those who hunger and thirst for righteousness (οἱ πεινῶντες καὶ διψῶντες τὴν δικαιοσύνην / hoi peinōntes kai dipsōntes tēn dikaiosynēn) ↩ back to text

Tier 1 — Lexical Anchor: δικαιοσύνη dikaiosynē means “righteousness, justice,” conduct and standing that conform to God’s will; it translates Hebrew צְדָקָה ṣədāqâ, which includes both right living and God’s saving justice for the oppressed. Verbs of hunger and thirst normally take the genitive (“hungry for some”); here the accusative suggests desiring the whole of it. Matthew uses the word seven times (Matthew 3:15; 5:6, 10, 20; 6:1, 33; 21:32), more than any other Gospel.

Tier 2 — Canonical Mesh: Isaiah invites “everyone who thirsts” to come to the waters (Isaiah 55:1–2), and the psalmist thirsts for God (Psalm 42:2). Amos speaks of a famine of hearing the words of the Lord (Amos 8:11). Jesus tells His disciples to seek first God’s kingdom and His righteousness (Matthew 6:33), and in Isaiah God’s righteousness draws near as salvation (Isaiah 51:5–6).

Tier 3 — Historical / Cosmological Horizon: Interpreters differ on the emphasis here. Some read righteousness mainly as the disciple’s own conduct that God requires (compare Matthew 5:20); others as God’s saving justice that sets the world right, longed for by those who suffer wrong; others as the right standing God gives. In Matthew’s Jewish setting the ideas belong together: those who long for God to set things right, in themselves and in the world, will be satisfied (χορτάζω chortazō, “filled to the full”).

g 5:8 — the pure in heart … shall see God (οἱ καθαροὶ τῇ καρδίᾳ … τὸν θεὸν ὄψονται / hoi katharoi tē kardia … ton theon opsontai) ↩ back to text

Tier 1 — Lexical Anchor: καθαρός katharos means “clean, pure,” used of ritual cleanness and of moral integrity. καρδία kardia, “heart,” in biblical usage is the center of thought, will, and loyalty, not only emotion. To be “pure in heart” is to be undivided in devotion, with inner life matching outward act; the rest of this chapter applies that to anger, desire, and speech. “Shall see” (ὄψονται opsontai) is future.

Tier 2 — Canonical Mesh: Psalm 24 asks who may ascend the hill of the Lord and stand in His holy place: “He who has clean hands and a pure heart” (Psalm 24:3–4); compare Psalm 73:1. Moses was told no one could see God’s face and live (Exodus 33:20), yet the New Testament promises that God’s servants “will see His face” (Revelation 22:4; compare 1 John 3:2; Hebrews 12:14).

Tier 3 — Historical / Cosmological Horizon: Seeing God was tied to the temple: worshipers went up to “appear before God” (Psalm 42:2; 84:7), and purity laws governed who could approach. Jesus moves the requirement from ritual cleanness to the heart, without dismissing the Law (Matthew 5:17). Jewish and Christian writers alike treated the vision of God as the highest blessing of the age to come.

h 5:9 — they shall be called sons of God (αὐτοὶ υἱοὶ θεοῦ κληθήσονται / autoi huioi theou klēthēsontai) ↩ back to text

Tier 1 — Lexical Anchor: εἰρηνοποιός eirēnopoios means “peacemaker,” one who actively makes peace, not merely one who is peaceful; εἰρήνη eirēnē carries the fuller sense of Hebrew שָׁלוֹם šālôm, wholeness and right relationship. “Shall be called” is a divine passive: God will acknowledge them as His sons. TWB keeps “sons” (not “children”) because in the ancient world sonship meant legal standing and inheritance, which applies to women as much as to men; “sons of God” remains lowercase per TWB’s capitalization rule.

Tier 2 — Canonical Mesh: Hosea promised that those called “Not My people” would be called “sons of the living God” (Hosea 1:10, cited in Romans 9:26). Paul says those led by the Spirit are sons of God (Romans 8:14) and that creation waits for “the revealing of the sons of God” (Romans 8:19); all who believe are sons of God in Christ (Galatians 3:26). Jesus repeats the promise for those who love their enemies (Matthew 5:45).

Tier 3 — Historical / Cosmological Horizon: In the Divine Council worldview, “sons of God” first names the heavenly beings of God’s assembly (Job 1:6; 38:7), set over the nations in Deuteronomy 32:8 (Dead Sea Scrolls and Septuagint) and judged for injustice in Psalm 82. Jesus promises the same title to human peacemakers: God is forming a new family, faithful where the rebellious sons failed. The Wisdom of Solomon 5:5 likewise pictures the righteous “numbered among the sons of God”.

i 5:13 — if the salt has become tasteless (ἐὰν δὲ τὸ ἅλας μωρανθῇ / ean de to halas mōranthē) ↩ back to text

Tier 1 — Lexical Anchor: μωραίνω mōrainō means “to make foolish, to become foolish,” and of salt “to become tasteless, insipid.” The wordplay matters: disciples who lose their distinctiveness have become foolish. TWB renders “tasteless,” the sense in a saying about salt, and notes the play here. ἅλας halas is salt. The emphatic “You” (ὑμεῖς hymeis) addresses the disciples directly: they are the salt, not merely that they should become it.

Tier 2 — Canonical Mesh: Every grain offering was to be seasoned with salt, “the salt of the covenant with your God” (Leviticus 2:13); a “covenant of salt” is a lasting covenant (Numbers 18:19; 2 Chronicles 13:5). Mark adds, “Have salt in yourselves, and be at peace with one another” (Mark 9:50), and Paul asks that speech be “seasoned with salt” (Colossians 4:6).

Tier 3 — Historical / Cosmological Horizon: Pure sodium chloride cannot lose its saltiness, but ancient salt, much of it gathered from the Dead Sea area, was mixed with other minerals; when the salt leached out, the residue was useless and was thrown onto paths. Salt preserved food, seasoned it, and accompanied sacrifices and covenants. A later rabbinic saying asks, “If the salt becomes unsavory, with what will it be salted?” (b. Bekhorot 8b), showing the image was proverbial.

j 5:14 — the light of the world … a city set on a mountain (τὸ φῶς τοῦ κόσμου … πόλις … ἐπάνω ὄρους κειμένη / to phōs tou kosmou … polis … epanō orous keimenē) ↩ back to text

Tier 1 — Lexical Anchor: φῶς phōs means “light.” As in Matthew 5:13, the emphatic “You” makes the statement a declaration of identity, not an instruction. λύχνος lychnos is a small clay oil lamp, and μόδιος modios a grain measure holding about two gallons (nine liters), used to cover a lamp; TWB renders “basket.” The light is not the disciples’ own: it shines so that people “glorify your Father” (Matthew 5:16).

Tier 2 — Canonical Mesh: Israel was called to be “a light to the nations” (Isaiah 42:6; 49:6), and Isaiah foresaw nations coming to Zion’s light (Isaiah 60:1–3) and to the mountain of the Lord’s house (Isaiah 2:2–3). The light that dawned in Galilee (Matthew 4:16) now shines through the disciples. Jesus calls Himself “the light of the world” (John 8:12), and Paul tells believers to shine “as lights in the world” (Philippians 2:15).

Tier 3 — Historical / Cosmological Horizon: Many Galilean towns stood on hilltops, visible for miles; Sepphoris, about 6 km (4 miles) from Nazareth, sat on a prominent hill. Jewish tradition also spoke of Jerusalem as the light of the world. A single lamp lit a one-room house; covering it would be absurd. The images call the disciples to visible faithfulness, completing Israel’s calling to the nations.

k 5:17 — I came … not to abolish but to fulfill (οὐκ ἦλθον καταλῦσαι ἀλλὰ πληρῶσαι / ouk ēlthon katalysai alla plērōsai) ↩ back to text

Tier 1 — Lexical Anchor: καταλύω katalyō means “to tear down, abolish, annul.” πληρόω plēroō means “to fill, complete, fulfill,” the same verb Matthew uses in his fulfillment formulas (Matthew 1:22; 2:15; 4:14). “The Law or the Prophets” refers to the Scriptures as a whole (Matthew 7:12; 22:40). “I came” (ἦλθον ēlthon) speaks of Jesus’ mission as a whole.

Tier 2 — Canonical Mesh: Jesus later says that the whole Law and the Prophets hang on love of God and neighbor (Matthew 22:40) and sums them up in the Golden Rule (Matthew 7:12). After the resurrection He explains that everything written about Him in the Law, the Prophets, and the Psalms must be fulfilled (Luke 24:44). Paul says faith does not overthrow the Law but upholds it (Romans 3:31), and calls Christ the τέλος telos of the Law (Romans 10:4), a word meaning both “end” and “goal.”

Tier 3 — Historical / Cosmological Horizon: The question of how Jesus relates to the Law of Moses was disputed from the start. Interpreters hold several positions: that Jesus fulfills the Law by obeying it perfectly; by bringing it to its intended meaning, as the following six teachings show; by being the one to whom it pointed, so that parts of it reach their goal in Him; or by all of these together. Christian traditions also differ on how the Law’s commands apply to believers today. TWB presents these views without choosing among them; the text itself rules out the claim that Jesus came to set the Scriptures aside.

l 5:18 — not one iota or one stroke (ἰῶτα ἓν ἢ μία κεραία / iōta hen ē mia keraia) ↩ back to text

Tier 1 — Lexical Anchor: ἰῶτα iōta is the smallest letter of the Greek alphabet, standing for the Hebrew י yôḏ, the smallest letter of the Hebrew script. κεραία keraia, “little horn,” is a tiny stroke or projection that distinguishes one Hebrew letter from another (as between ב bêṯ and כ kap̄). Older English versions said “one jot or one tittle.” “Truly” (ἀμήν amēn) at the start of a saying is a habit unique to Jesus: others said “amen” to confirm what had been said, but He used it to introduce His own words with authority.

Tier 2 — Canonical Mesh: Luke records a similar saying: it is easier for heaven and earth to pass away than for one stroke of the Law to fail (Luke 16:17). Jesus says His own words will never pass away (Matthew 24:35), and Isaiah declares that the word of our God stands forever (Isaiah 40:8; compare Psalm 119:89).

Tier 3 — Historical / Cosmological Horizon: Scribes copied Torah scrolls with exacting care, and later rabbinic tradition tells of the yod of Sarai’s name (changed to Sarah) complaining before God until it was restored in the name Joshua. “Until all is accomplished” (ἕως ἂν πάντα γένηται heōs an panta genētai) is understood by some as the end of the age and by others as the accomplishment of Jesus’ mission in His death and resurrection; Matthew 24:34 uses the same expression.

m 5:21 — You have heard that it was said … But I say to you (ἠκούσατε ὅτι ἐρρέθη … ἐγὼ δὲ λέγω ὑμῖν / ēkousate hoti errethē … egō de legō hymin) ↩ back to text

Tier 1 — Lexical Anchor: “It was said” (ἐρρέθη errethē) is a divine passive referring to the Law given at Sinai, heard read aloud in the synagogue. “To those of old” (τοῖς ἀρχαίοις tois archaiois) is a dative, “to” the ancestors at Sinai, though some read it as “by” the ancients, meaning the teachers who handed the Law down. The emphatic pronoun in “But I say to you” (ἐγὼ δὲ λέγω ὑμῖν egō de legō hymin) sets Jesus’ authority beside the words given at Sinai. The six sayings that follow are often called the antitheses. Per TWB’s citation rule only the commandment itself is in capitals; the rest of the line is not an exact quotation.

Tier 2 — Canonical Mesh: “You shall not murder” is the sixth commandment (Exodus 20:13; Deuteronomy 5:17); the death penalty for murder is in Exodus 21:12. Jesus traces murder back to anger, as Cain’s anger came before Cain’s murder (Genesis 4:5–8). The crowds are astonished that He taught as one having authority (Matthew 7:28–29), and the risen Jesus claims all authority in heaven and on earth (Matthew 28:18).

Tier 3 — Historical / Cosmological Horizon: Rabbis taught by citing earlier authorities: “Rabbi so-and-so says.” Jesus cites no authority but Himself. Interpreters differ on whether the six antitheses intensify the Law, uncover its original intent, or in some cases (oaths, retaliation) go beyond it; several of them clearly restore the Law’s purpose against later practice. Each antithesis begins with what the Law forbade and moves to the heart.

n 5:22 — Raca … You fool! (ῥακά … μωρέ / rhaka … mōre) ↩ back to text

Tier 1 — Lexical Anchor: ῥακά rhaka transliterates Aramaic רֵיקָא rêqāʾ, “empty one, empty-head,” a common insult. μωρός mōros, “fool,” denotes one who is morally foolish, not merely unintelligent; in the Psalms the fool says there is no God (Psalm 14:1). “The council” (συνέδριον synedrion) is the Sanhedrin, the Jewish high court. The sayings build in severity, from judgment to council to the Gehenna of fire, to show that contempt is as serious before God as murder. Many later manuscripts add “without cause” after “angry”; NA28 omits it (see the variant record below).

Tier 2 — Canonical Mesh: Jesus Himself calls the scribes and Pharisees “blind fools” (Matthew 23:17), which shows that the saying condemns contempt for a brother, not every strong word. “The anger of man does not produce the righteousness of God” (James 1:20); “be angry and do not sin” (Ephesians 4:26); “everyone who hates his brother is a murderer” (1 John 3:15).

Tier 3 — Historical / Cosmological Horizon: Contempt and public insult were serious matters in an honor-and-shame culture, and later Jewish law treated shaming a person in public as akin to shedding blood (b. Bava Meṣiʿa 58b). The words “without cause” (εἰκῇ eikē) appear in many later manuscripts and in the Textus Receptus (“whosoever is angry with his brother without a cause,” KJV). The earliest manuscripts lack it; it is best explained as a scribal softening to allow for righteous anger. TWB follows NA28.

Variant record: main text “everyone who is angry with his brother (πᾶς ὁ ὀργιζόμενος τῷ ἀδελφῷ αὐτοῦ)”; alternative “everyone who is angry with his brother without cause (… τῷ ἀδελφῷ αὐτοῦ εἰκῇ)”. Witnesses: NA28: main; Codex Sinaiticus (original hand): main; Codex Vaticanus: main; Codex Bezae: alternative; Majority Text: alternative; Textus Receptus: alternative. Decision: NA28 reading retained.

o 5:22 — the Gehenna of fire (τὴν γέενναν τοῦ πυρός / tēn geennan tou pyros) ↩ back to text

Tier 1 — Lexical Anchor: γέεννα geenna transliterates Hebrew גֵּי הִנֹּם gê hinnōm, “Valley of Hinnom,” the ravine on the south side of Jerusalem. TWB keeps “Gehenna” rather than “hell,” because English “hell” merges several distinct biblical terms: Hebrew שְׁאוֹל šəʾôl and Greek ᾅδης hadēs, the realm of the dead; ταρταρόω tartaroō (2 Peter 2:4); and Gehenna, the place of final judgment. In Matthew it occurs seven times (Matthew 5:22, 29, 30; 10:28; 18:9; 23:15, 33). “Gehenna of fire” uses a Hebrew-style genitive: Gehenna characterized by fire.

Tier 2 — Canonical Mesh: In the Valley of Hinnom kings of Judah burned their children in fire to Molech (2 Kings 23:10; Jeremiah 7:31). Jeremiah announced that it would be renamed “the Valley of Slaughter,” filled with the dead of Jerusalem’s judgment (Jeremiah 7:32; 19:6). Isaiah closes with the corpses of the rebels outside the city, whose “worm shall not die” and whose “fire shall not be quenched” (Isaiah 66:24), words Jesus applies to Gehenna (Mark 9:48). Jesus says God can destroy both soul and body in Gehenna (Matthew 10:28), and speaks of the eternal fire prepared for the devil and his angels (Matthew 25:41).

Tier 3 — Historical / Cosmological Horizon: By the Second Temple period the valley had become the name for the place of final judgment. 1 Enoch 27:1–3 describes an “accursed valley” beside Jerusalem where the wicked will be judged in view of the righteous, and 1 Enoch 90:26–27 places a fiery abyss south of the city. The popular claim that the valley was a burning city garbage dump in Jesus’ day comes from a medieval commentator (David Kimhi, about AD 1200) and lacks ancient support. Christian traditions differ on the nature of final judgment, holding to eternal conscious punishment, to the final destruction of the wicked, or to other views; TWB records the terms and their background without choosing among them.

p 5:28 — looks at a woman with a view to desiring her (ὁ βλέπων γυναῖκα πρὸς τὸ ἐπιθυμῆσαι αὐτήν / ho blepōn gynaika pros to epithymēsai autēn) ↩ back to text

Tier 1 — Lexical Anchor: ἐπιθυμέω epithymeō means “to desire, long for,” and with a person as object, to covet. The construction πρὸς τό pros to with the infinitive expresses purpose: looking in order to desire, a deliberate gaze, not an unwanted glance. γυνή gynē can mean “woman” or “wife”; the tenth commandment uses the same verb and noun. In verses 29–30, σκανδαλίζω skandalizō, “to cause to stumble,” comes from σκάνδαλον skandalon, the trigger of a trap; the commands to tear out the eye and cut off the hand are deliberate hyperbole, demanding decisive action against what leads to sin.

Tier 2 — Canonical Mesh: The Septuagint of the tenth commandment reads, “You shall not covet (ἐπιθυμήσεις epithymēseis) your neighbor’s wife” (Exodus 20:17). Job made a covenant with his eyes not to gaze at a virgin (Job 31:1), and Proverbs warns, “Do not desire her beauty in your heart” (Proverbs 6:25). Jesus repeats the eye-and-hand saying in Matthew 18:8–9, and Paul urges believers not to present their members to sin (Romans 6:13).

Tier 3 — Historical / Cosmological Horizon: Jewish wisdom literature already warned against lustful looking: “Turn away your eyes from a shapely woman” (Sirach 9:8), and the Testament of Issachar praises one who did not let his eyes wander. Jesus places responsibility on the one who looks rather than on the woman. Early Christian interpreters recognized the hyperbole in verses 29–30; the point is that no sacrifice is too great to avoid final ruin.

q 5:32 — except on the ground of sexual immorality (παρεκτὸς λόγου πορνείας / parektos logou porneias) ↩ back to text

Tier 1 — Lexical Anchor: ἀπολύω apolyō means “to release, send away,” the ordinary term for divorce. πορνεία porneia covers sexual immorality broadly; it is wider than μοιχεία moicheia, adultery. παρεκτὸς λόγου parektos logou, “apart from a matter of,” echoes Deuteronomy 24:1, “some indecency” (עֶרְוַת דָּבָר ʿerwaṯ dāḇār, literally “a matter of nakedness”). “Makes her commit adultery” renders a passive infinitive (μοιχευθῆναι moicheuthēnai): the husband puts her in a position where remarriage will be counted as adultery. The Deuteronomy citation in Matthew 5:31 is a summary of Deuteronomy 24:1, set in capitals per TWB’s citation rule.

Tier 2 — Canonical Mesh: Jesus returns to the subject when Pharisees ask whether divorce is allowed “for any reason” (Matthew 19:3–9), pointing back to creation (Genesis 2:24). Mark and Luke give the saying without the exception (Mark 10:11–12; Luke 16:18), and Paul cites the Lord’s command against divorce and then addresses a believer deserted by an unbelieving spouse (1 Corinthians 7:10–15). Malachi says God hates divorce, or in another reading, that the man who divorces covers his garment with violence (Malachi 2:16).

Tier 3 — Historical / Cosmological Horizon: In Jesus’ day the schools of Shammai and Hillel debated Deuteronomy 24:1: Shammai allowed divorce only for sexual misconduct, while Hillel allowed it even for spoiling a meal (m. Giṭṭin 9:10). Only the husband could initiate divorce under Jewish law, and a divorced woman without a certificate could not remarry. Interpreters read the exception in several ways: as adultery or other sexual sin within marriage; as unlawful marriages within forbidden degrees of kinship (Leviticus 18; compare Acts 15:20); or as unfaithfulness during betrothal (compare Joseph, Matthew 1:19). Christian traditions also differ on whether remarriage is permitted after such a divorce. TWB records these readings without choosing among them.

r 5:35 — the footstool of His feet … the city of the great King (ὑποπόδιόν … τῶν ποδῶν αὐτοῦ … πόλις … τοῦ μεγάλου βασιλέως / hypopodion … tōn podōn autou … polis … tou megalou basileōs) ↩ back to text

Tier 1 — Lexical Anchor: ὀμνύω omnyō means “to swear, take an oath.” The phrases about heaven, earth, and Jerusalem echo Isaiah 66:1 (“Heaven is My throne, and the earth is My footstool”) and Psalm 48:2 (“the city of the great King”), woven into Jesus’ words as allusions rather than citations, so they are not in capitals. The citation in Matthew 5:33 summarizes several commands (Leviticus 19:12; Numbers 30:2; Deuteronomy 23:21); TWB marks it with Leviticus 19:12, the closest wording.

Tier 2 — Canonical Mesh: Jesus condemns the scribes’ distinctions between binding and non-binding oaths (Matthew 23:16–22). James repeats the teaching: “Do not swear … but let your yes be yes and your no be no” (James 5:12). Yet God Himself swears by Himself (Hebrews 6:13–17), and Paul calls God as witness (2 Corinthians 1:23).

Tier 3 — Historical / Cosmological Horizon: People swore by heaven, earth, Jerusalem, or their own heads to avoid pronouncing God’s name, and some argued that such oaths were less binding. Jesus answers that every one of these belongs to God: heaven is His throne in the heavenly council, the earth His footstool, Jerusalem His royal city. The Essenes avoided oaths, holding that one who could not be believed without calling on God was already condemned (Josephus, Jewish War 2.135). Christian traditions differ: some refuse all oaths, including in court, while others hold that Jesus forbids casual and evasive swearing, not solemn oaths before authorities.

s 5:37 — from the evil one (ἐκ τοῦ πονηροῦ / ek tou ponērou) ↩ back to text

Tier 1 — Lexical Anchor: πονηρός ponēros means “evil, wicked.” With the article in the genitive (τοῦ πονηροῦ tou ponērou) it can be neuter, “from evil,” or masculine, “from the evil one.” Matthew uses the masculine for the devil in the parable of the sower and of the weeds (Matthew 13:19, 38), and the same ambiguity occurs in the Lord’s Prayer (Matthew 6:13). TWB renders “the evil one” and records the alternative here.

Tier 2 — Canonical Mesh: Jesus calls the devil “a liar and the father of lies” (John 8:44), which fits the context of truthful speech. John says the whole world lies in the power of the evil one (1 John 5:19), and Paul speaks of “the flaming darts of the evil one” (Ephesians 6:16).

Tier 3 — Historical / Cosmological Horizon: In the Divine Council worldview, the adversary’s first appearance in Scripture is a deception (Genesis 3:1–5). Second Temple texts associate the chief of evil spirits with falsehood: the Dead Sea Scrolls contrast the spirits of truth and of injustice (1QS 3:18–21). Speech that needs oaths to be believed reflects a world in which lies are expected; the kingdom’s people speak plainly because they belong to the God of truth.

t 5:39 — do not resist the evil person (μὴ ἀντιστῆναι τῷ πονηρῷ / mē antistēnai tō ponērō) ↩ back to text

Tier 1 — Lexical Anchor: ἀνθίστημι anthistēmi means “to stand against, oppose, resist,” and was used of opposing someone in a lawsuit. τῷ πονηρῷ tō ponērō is masculine here, “the evil person,” the one who wrongs you, as the examples that follow show. The citation “an eye for an eye” (Exodus 21:24; Leviticus 24:20; Deuteronomy 19:21) is in capitals per TWB’s citation rule. ῥαπίζω rhapizō, “to slap,” is used of a blow to the face, an insult more than an injury.

Tier 2 — Canonical Mesh: The servant of the Lord gave His cheek to those who pulled out the beard (Isaiah 50:6; compare Lamentations 3:30), and Jesus was struck in the face at His trial (Matthew 26:67). Paul: “Repay no one evil for evil” (Romans 12:17); Peter: when reviled, Jesus did not revile in return (1 Peter 2:23). Jesus nevertheless questioned the one who struck Him unjustly (John 18:22–23).

Tier 3 — Historical / Cosmological Horizon: The law of retaliation was given to judges, to limit punishment to the measure of the wrong, not to license private revenge; similar limits appear in the Code of Hammurabi (laws 196–200). By Jesus’ day Jewish law generally applied it as monetary compensation (m. Bava Qamma 8:1). A blow to the right cheek with the right hand would be a backhanded slap, a deliberate insult, and the Mishnah sets a heavier fine for striking with the back of the hand (m. Bava Qamma 8:6). Interpreters differ on the application: some read the passage as forbidding all use of force, others as forbidding personal revenge while leaving room for governing authorities (Romans 13:1–4), and others as calling for nonviolent responses that refuse both retaliation and passivity.

u 5:41 — whoever compels you to go one mile (ὅστις σε ἀγγαρεύσει μίλιον ἕν / hostis se angareusei milion hen) ↩ back to text

Tier 1 — Lexical Anchor: ἀγγαρεύω angareuō is a loanword from Persian, from the royal couriers (ἄγγαροι angaroi) who could requisition men and animals to carry the king’s messages. It became the technical term for compulsory service demanded by soldiers or officials. μίλιον milion is the Roman mile of a thousand paces, about 1,480 meters (0.92 English miles); Matthew uses the Latin loanword.

Tier 2 — Canonical Mesh: Matthew uses the same verb when Roman soldiers compel Simon of Cyrene to carry Jesus’ cross (Matthew 27:32; Mark 15:21). Proverbs commands feeding a hungry enemy (Proverbs 25:21), quoted by Paul (Romans 12:20).

Tier 3 — Historical / Cosmological Horizon: Roman soldiers in the provinces could legally force civilians to carry their gear, and the practice was widely resented; documents from the period record complaints and imperial edicts limiting it. For Galilean and Judean hearers the example was concrete: going a second, voluntary mile turned forced service into a free act of goodwill toward an occupier.

v 5:43 — You shall love your neighbor and hate your enemy (ἀγαπήσεις τὸν πλησίον σου καὶ μισήσεις τὸν ἐχθρόν σου / agapēseis ton plēsion sou kai misēseis ton echthron sou) ↩ back to text

Tier 1 — Lexical Anchor: ἀγαπάω agapaō means “to love,” in the Bible chiefly an active commitment to another’s good. πλησίον plēsion, “neighbor,” is literally “the one near.” The first half quotes Leviticus 19:18 and is in capitals; the words “and hate your enemy” are found in no Old Testament text, so TWB sets them in ordinary type. They state a common inference drawn from the command, not Scripture itself.

Tier 2 — Canonical Mesh: In Leviticus the neighbor is first the fellow Israelite, but the same chapter commands love for the stranger living among Israel “as yourself” (Leviticus 19:34). The Law already required returning an enemy’s straying ox (Exodus 23:4–5). Psalm 139:21–22 expresses hatred for God’s enemies, which some took as a model. A lawyer later asks, “And who is my neighbor?” (Luke 10:29), and Jesus calls Leviticus 19:18 the second great commandment (Matthew 22:39).

Tier 3 — Historical / Cosmological Horizon: The Dead Sea community taught its members “to love all the sons of light … and to hate all the sons of darkness” (1QS 1:9–10), the closest known parallel to the saying Jesus cites. Many Jews of the period drew the boundaries of “neighbor” around their own people or sect. Jesus removes the boundary altogether.

w 5:44 — love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you (ἀγαπᾶτε τοὺς ἐχθροὺς ὑμῶν καὶ προσεύχεσθε ὑπὲρ τῶν διωκόντων ὑμᾶς / agapate tous echthrous hymōn kai proseuchesthe hyper tōn diōkontōn hymas) ↩ back to text

Tier 1 — Lexical Anchor: The imperatives are present tense, describing a continuing way of life. ὑπέρ hyper with the genitive means “on behalf of,” praying for their good, not merely about them. NA28 reads the short form. The Textus Receptus and most later manuscripts add “bless those who curse you, do good to those who hate you” and “those who mistreat you and” (compare the KJV); these phrases match Luke 6:27–28 and are absent from the earliest manuscripts.

Tier 2 — Canonical Mesh: Luke’s sermon has the fuller wording (Luke 6:27–28). Jesus prays for those crucifying Him (Luke 23:34), and Stephen prays for those stoning him (Acts 7:60). Paul: “Bless those who persecute you; bless and do not curse” (Romans 12:14).

Tier 3 — Historical / Cosmological Horizon: Ancient ethics generally held that one should help friends and harm enemies, a principle stated plainly in Greek literature as early as Hesiod and discussed by Plato. A few Stoics urged forbearance toward wrongdoers, but a command to love and pray for enemies stood out. TWB follows NA28; the longer reading is best explained as scribes harmonizing Matthew to Luke.

Variant record: main text “love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you (ἀγαπᾶτε τοὺς ἐχθροὺς ὑμῶν καὶ προσεύχεσθε ὑπὲρ τῶν διωκόντων ὑμᾶς)”; alternative “love your enemies, bless those who curse you, do good to those who hate you, and pray for those who mistreat you and persecute you”. Witnesses: NA28: main; Codex Sinaiticus: main; Codex Vaticanus: main; Majority Text: alternative; Textus Receptus: alternative. Decision: NA28 reading retained.

x 5:45 — He makes His sun rise on the evil and the good (τὸν ἥλιον αὐτοῦ ἀνατέλλει ἐπὶ πονηροὺς καὶ ἀγαθούς / ton hēlion autou anatellei epi ponērous kai agathous) ↩ back to text

Tier 1 — Lexical Anchor: ἀνατέλλω anatellō, “to cause to rise,” is the same verb used of the light that “dawned” in Matthew 4:16 (see the TWB note there). “His sun”: the sun belongs to God. “That you may become sons” (ὅπως γένησθε υἱοί hopōs genēsthe huioi): in Hebrew idiom a “son of” someone shares that person’s character, so loving enemies shows the family likeness of the Father (compare Matthew 5:9).

Tier 2 — Canonical Mesh: “The Lord is good to all, and His mercy is over all that He has made” (Psalm 145:9). Paul tells the people of Lystra that God gave them rains and fruitful seasons (Acts 14:17). Luke: God “is kind to the ungrateful and the evil” (Luke 6:35).

Tier 3 — Historical / Cosmological Horizon: In the surrounding cultures the sun was worshiped as a god: Shamash in Mesopotamia, Ra in Egypt, Helios and Sol among Greeks and Romans. Israel was warned not to worship the sun, moon, and stars (Deuteronomy 4:19; see the TWB note on Genesis 1:16). Jesus calls the sun God’s own, a servant of His goodness. The Roman philosopher Seneca made a similar point: if you imitate the gods, give benefits even to the ungrateful, for the sun rises on the wicked too (On Benefits 4.26).

y 5:48 — complete (τέλειοι … τέλειος / teleioi … teleios) ↩ back to text

Tier 1 — Lexical Anchor: τέλειος teleios comes from τέλος telos, “end, goal, purpose,” and means mature, whole, fully developed, brought to its intended completion. TWB renders “complete” rather than the traditional “perfect,” because in modern English “perfect” suggests absolute flawlessness, which obscures the context. The immediate context is imitating the Father’s all-inclusive love toward both the evil and the good (Matthew 5:45), not a demand for moral flawlessness. The future “you shall be” (ἔσεσθε esesthe) carries the force of a command, in the style of the Ten Commandments.

Tier 2 — Canonical Mesh: The Septuagint of Deuteronomy 18:13 reads, “You shall be complete (τέλειος teleios) before the Lord your God.” Leviticus commands, “You shall be holy, for I the Lord your God am holy” (Leviticus 19:2). Luke’s parallel reads, “Be merciful, as your Father is merciful” (Luke 6:36), confirming that the point is love and mercy. Jesus tells the rich man, “If you would be complete” (Matthew 19:21), and James speaks of steadfastness that makes one “complete and lacking in nothing” (James 1:4).

Tier 3 — Historical / Cosmological Horizon: Behind the Greek stands Hebrew תָּמִים tāmîm, “whole, blameless, having integrity,” said of Noah (Genesis 6:9) and required of Abraham (“walk before Me and be blameless,” Genesis 17:1). It describes undivided wholehearted loyalty, not sinlessness. Later debates about Christian “perfection” read Matthew 5:48 in light of medieval and post-Reformation categories; TWB’s rendering returns the reader to the verse’s own context. See the TWB Greek Lexicon entry on τέλειος teleios.